Question

Hello, please answer from book „Bitcoin and Cryptocurrency Technologies” to:
Even when all nodes are honest, blocks will occasionally get orphaned: if two miners Minnie and Mynie discover blocks nearly simultaneously, neither will have time to hear about the other’s block before broadcasting hers.
4a. What determines whose block will end up on the consensus branch?
4b. What factors affect the rate of orphan blocks? Can you derive a formula for the rate based on these parameters?
4c. Try to empirically measure this rate on the Bitcoin network.
4d. If Mynie hears about Minnie’s block just before she’s about to discover hers, does that mean she wasted her effort?
4e. Do all miners have their blocks orphaned at the same rate, or are some miners affected disproportionately? Thank u.

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Answer 1

4a.  In each round, a random node is somehow selected, and this node gets to propose
the next block in the chain. There is no consensus algorithm for selecting the block, and no voting of
any kind. The chosen node unilaterally proposes what the next block in the block chain will be.

4b. There are a variety of reasons that could lead to a block
being orphaned. The block may contain an invalid transaction, or a double‐spend attempt. It could
also just be a result of network latency. That is, two miners may simply end up finding new blocks
within just a few seconds of each other. So both of these blocks were broadcast nearly simultaneously
onto the network, and one of them will inevitably be orphaned.

4c.