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9. (Association Versus Causation) Suppose I observe that communities with lots of doctors tend to have relatively high rates
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The reasoning is flawed in the sense that: one can associate that places with large number of doctors have high number of illnesses. But one cannot deduce that doctors cause illness, i.e. the causation effect. One cannot gauge a cause and effect relationship here. There might be other causes of illnesses.

This is only an interpretation of a descriptive analysis of the place and so one cannot state the causation effect here based on descriptive analysis. To state so, one must perform a regression analysis. Here we can associate illness with doctors but cannot hold them as causes of illness.

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