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For a start, male & female African elephants (Elephas maximus) differ in tusk development. Most males have tusks, while many females are tuskless, or have small tusks. (This suggests that the genetic contol of tusk development must be quite complex.) And tusk size increases with age, because these modified teeth grow throughout the animal's life: this means that broken tusks can regrow. However, in South Africa's Addo Elephant National Park 98% of females are tuskless (Whitehouse. 2001). Because elephants have been extensively hunted for ivory for more than 300 years, natural selection is often proposed as the underlying mechanism for an increase in the proportion of tuskless or small-tusked elephants in a population. After all, it does sound right of animals with small or no tusks are more likely to survive, & their relative lack of tusk is heritable, then you'd expect that trait to spread through the population. Whitehouse tested this hypothesis in the Addo elephant population- & rejected it To begin with, if natural selection (hunting) did have this effect, then you'd expect that tusklessness would be a feature of both male & female Addo elephants. But in 2000, when Whitehouse surveyed the population, female tusklessness was at 98% but all the males had tusks. (Tusklessness in populations elsewhere in Africa - generally attributed to selective hunting - had also been noted as increasing, but not to the levels observed in Addo.) Whitehouse began by looking at the history of the Addo elephants. While elephants were widespread in South Africa prior to European settlement, by 1900 their numbers had dropped precipitously right across the country. The largest remaining population, of around 130 animals, was in Eastern Cape Province. This was further reduced during 1919-20 by a professional hunter, who'd been contracted to kill the animals by local farmers. By 1931 only 11 elephants remained in the Province, and the Addo park was created in an attempt to preserve that population. Mortality remained relatively high until an elephant-proof fence was built in 1954 to keep the animals within the reserve, & by December 2000 the population had grown to 324 animals. However, there's been no immigration into the Addo herd since 1931. In other words, the Addo elephants have been through a substantial population bottleneck. That founding population of 11 comprised 8 females & 3 males, but only one adult male (which had tusks) bred with the females. Of those 8 founding females, 4 (50%) were tuskless & 3 had at least one tusk Whitehouse could find no details of the 8th. This compares with a tuskless frequency, in populations elsewhere in Africa, of 2-20% Whitehouse comments that the tusked tuskless state is likely to be sex-linked, given the strong difference between the sexes. But she also notes that the actual pattern of inheritance is likely to be complex, given that there are several possible phenotypes involved (tusked, having a single tusk right or left) and tuskless), and that the few tusked mothers in Addo tend to have tuskless calves She proposed four hypotheses to explain the high proportion of tuskess females in Addo. The first relates to the vegetation of the area - is mainly shrubs & succulent plants. The elephants may not need tusks to feed on this sort of vegetation. But the time for which this population has been isolated (no more than 300 years) hardly seems long enough for a lack of selection pressure to produce the observed result