Question

1. Explain how animal respiratory organs have evolved to increase diffusion rates by manipulating these variables; distance of diffusion, concentration gradient and area for diffusion. B) For each variable, provide- and explain- an example of an animal that has maximized it the most. Use a different animal group for each example.

2. Explain how pH and temperature affect the loading of oxygen in the lungs and its unloading in the tissues.

3. Compare the advantage and disadvantages of A ) open vs closed circulatory systems, and B) single-loop vs double- loop circulatory systems.

4. Describe the evolution changes of the evolutionary changes of the circulatory systems in fish, amphibians, most reptiles, birds, and mammals.

5 .A) What are the main differences between innate and adaptive immunity? B) On which type of immunity do vaccines work?

6.A) what is the difference between humoral and cell-mediated immunity? B) Give an example of each; adaptive cell-mediated immunity, innate cell-mediated immunity, adaptive humoral immunity, and innate humoral immunity

Answer 1

1.rate of diffusion depends on various factors given below   :

DISTANCE: if distance is small ,so diffusion will take place faster as particles will  have to travel shorter distance.

eg.in simple organisms like cnidarians and flatworms,every cell in body is close to external environment..there cells are kept moist and gases diffuse quickly by direct diffusion.

CINCENTRATION GRADIENT :if thier is a huge difference in cincentration between area of subtance travels with respect to where it is moving, the diffusion occurs faster

.eg;large surface areo of gills of fish ensure that they get suffiecient  oxygen. we know diffusionis process in which the substances travel from high concentration gradient to low concentration gradient until it reached equillibruim.in this,the cooncentration of oxygen in water molecules is higher than concentration of oxygen in gills.so diffusion takes place and oxygen travels from water molecules(high concentration) to blood (low concentration). and similarly carbon di oxide from blood(high concentration) to water (low concentration).

SURFACE AREA :larger the surface area ,higher the no of particles that will move in given time,hence faster will be the diffusion eg.human lungs,we have large surface area for gases to pass. our alveolar surface area is approx 75m square.this large survace area wuth thin walled nature allow gases to pass easily.

i hope uh get the first question thnku. moving forward to 2nd

2. loading and unloding reaction takes place due to changes in the affinity of haemoglobin for oxygen .

PH: the affinity is increased when PH is high and decreased when ph is low -BOHR EFFECT

when afinity for haemoglobin for oxygen is reduced there will be less LOADING of blood with oxygen in lungs but greater UNLOADING of oxygen in tissues.as a net tissues recieve more blood when the PH of blood is lowered.since ph of blood can be reduced by co2 .bohr effect help us in providing more oxygen to tissues when CO2 output is increased by faster metabolism

TEMPERATURE :temperature effects the affinity or we can say the bonding strength of hoaemoglobin for oxgen. increased temperature decreases the affinity of haemoglobin for o2.

moving to 3 rd question :

3. OPEN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM:

ADVANTAGES-1 requires less energy for distribution.

2.suited to animals having slower metabolism and smaller body.

3.more feasible in small animals

4.due to absense of artries,blood pressure remsin low and oxygen takes longer to reach cells.if organisms is less active as in locomotion ,digestion it needs low oxygen.

DISADVANTAGES:

1.requires low metabolic rate

2. does not work for larger creature.

3.impossible to increase blood distribution.

CLOSED CIRCULATORY SYSTEM :

ADVANTAGES

1.operates with higher blood pressue.

2.uses less blood or evenhigher and faster level of distribution

3.due to efficient distribution of antibodied ,immune system is strong.

DISADVANTAGES:

more complex than open circulatory system

2.requires more energy for blood distribution.

part2 SINGLE LOOP CIRCULATORY SYSTEM:usually seen in fish

ADVANTAGES:

1.the blood circulating in body is already oxygenated in gills.

DISADVANTAGE:

1blood flow pressure decreses when blood release the fish gill

DOUBLE LOOP CIRCULATORY SYSTEM:

ADVANTAGES:

1.maintainence of higher blood pressure

2.greater flow of blood to tissues

3.seperation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.

4.supply of blood and ixygen to different cells of body

DISADVANTAGES:1 it takes both oxygenated and deoxygenated blood at one time.

2.much complex than single and much more efficient than single.

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