Question

Define the term allotrope and list any three allotropes of carbon at the nanoscale. Write on these three nano carbon allotropes in an up-to-date manner. [Your answer should include structures and where you are unable to give a precise structure, it is sufficient to indicate key components of the structure; background to their discovery; properties and some examples of current applications.

Answer 1

Allotropy is the property of some chemical elements to exist in two or more different forms, or allotropes, when found in nature. Below are allotropes of carbon:

1) Diamond -

Diamond is probably the most well known carbon allotrope. The carbon atoms are arranged in a lattice, which is a variation of the face-centered cubic crystal structure. It has superlative physical qualities, most of which originate from the strong covalent bonding between its atoms. Each carbon atom in a diamond is covalently bonded to four other carbons in a tetrahedron. These tetrahedrons together form a three-dimensional network of six-membered carbon rings in the chair conformation, allowing for zero bond-angle strain. This stable network of covalent bonds and hexagonal rings is the reason that diamond is so incredibly strong as a substance.

As a result, diamond exhibits the highest hardness and thermal conductivity of any bulk material. In addition, its rigid lattice prevents contamination by many elements. The surface of diamond is lipophillic and hydrophobic, which means it cannot get wet by water but can be in oil. Diamonds do not generally react with any chemical reagents, including strong acids and bases. Uses of diamond include cutting, drilling, and grinding; jewelry; and in the semi-conductor industry.

2) Graphite -

Graphite is another allotrope of carbon; unlike diamond, it is an electrical conductor and a semi-metal. Graphite is the most stable form of carbon under standard conditions and is used in thermochemistry as the standard state for defining the heat of formation of carbon compounds. There are three types of natural graphite:

Crystalline flake graphite: isolated, flat, plate-like particles with hexagonal edges
Amorphous graphite: fine particles, the result of thermal metamorphism of coal; sometimes called meta-anthracite
Lump or vein graphite: occurs in fissure veins or fractures, appears as growths of fibrous or acicular crystalline aggregates
Graphite has a layered, planar structure. In each layer, the carbon atoms are arranged in a hexagonal lattice with separation of 0.142 nm, and the distance between planes (layers) is 0.335 nm. The two known forms of graphite, alpha (hexagonal) and beta (rhombohedral), have very similar physical properties (except that the layers stack slightly differently). The hexagonal graphite may be either flat or buckled. The alpha form can be converted to the beta form through mechanical treatment, and the beta form reverts to the alpha form when it is heated above 1300 °C. Graphite can conduct electricity due to the vast electron delocalization within the carbon layers; as the electrons are free to move, electricity moves through the plane of the layers. Graphite also has self-lubricating and dry lubricating properties. Graphite has applications in prosthetic blood-containing materials and heat-resistant materials as it can resist temperatures up to 3000 °C.

3) Fullerenes and Nanotubes -

Carbon nanomaterials make up another class of carbon allotropes. Fullerenes (also called buckyballs) are molecules of varying sizes composed entirely of carbon that take on the form of hollow spheres, ellipsoids, or tubes. Buckyballs and buckytubes have been the subject of intense research, both because of their unique chemistry and for their technological applications, especially in materials science, electronics, and nanotechnology. Carbon nanotubes are cylindrical carbon molecules that exhibit extraordinary strength and unique electrical properties and are efficient conductors of heat. Carbon nanobuds are newly discovered allotropes in which fullerene-like “buds” are covalently attached to the outer side walls of a carbon nanotube. Nanobuds therefore exhibit properties of both nanotubes and fullerenes.