Question

write short ,but comprehensive write-up on (A) pulmonary embolism,(B) chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), (C) lung atelectasis. need answers with bullet points with causes, signs and symptoms, epidemiology, diagnosis, treatment, prognosis, prevention.

Answer 1

A. PULMONARY EMBOLISM

​​​​​​* A pulmonary embolism is a blood clot that occurs in the lungs.​​​​​​​​​​​​​
* It can damage part of the lung due to restricted blood flow, decrease oxygen levels in the blood, and affect other organs as well.
* Large or multiple blood clots can be fatal.
CAUSES
* Pulmonary embolisms are most often caused by deep vein thrombosis, a condition in which blood clots form in veins deep in the body. The blood clots that most often cause pulmonary embolisms begin in the legs or pelvis.

Blood clots in the deep veins of the body can have several different causes, including:

• Injury or damage: Injuries like bone fractures or muscle tears can cause damage to blood vessels, leading to clots.
• Inactivity: During long periods of inactivity, gravity causes blood to stagnate in the lowest areas of your body, which may lead to a blood clot. This could occur if you’re sitting for a lengthy trip or if you’re lying in bed recovering from an illness.
  
• Medical conditions: Some health conditions cause blood to clot too easily, which can lead to pulmonary embolism. Treatments for medical conditions, such as surgery or chemotherapy for cancer, can also cause blood clots.

SIGN AND SYMPTOMS
The most common symptom of a pulmonary embolism is shortness of breath. This may be gradual or sudden.

Other symptoms of a pulmonary embolism include:

• 
  
• clammy or bluish skin
• chest pain that may extend into your arm, jaw, neck, and shoulder
• fainting
• irregular heartbeat
• lightheadedness
• rapid breathing
• rapid heartbeat
• restlessness
• spitting up blood
• weak pulse
  

DIAGNOSIS

• chest X-ray: This standard, noninvasive test allows doctors to see your heart and lungs in detail, as well as any problems with the bones around your lungs.
• electrocardiography (ECG): This test measures your heart’s electrical activity.
• MRI: This scan uses radio waves and a magnetic field to produce detailed images.
• CT scan: This scan gives your doctor the ability to see cross-sectional images of your lungs. A special scan called a V/Q scan may be ordered.
• pulmonary angiography: This test involves making a small incision so your doctor can guide specialized tools through your veins. Your doctor will inject a special dye so that the blood vessels of the lung can be seen.
• duplex venous ultrasound: This test uses radio waves to visualize the flow of blood and to check for blood clots in your legs.
• venography: This is a specialized X-ray of the veins of your legs.
• D-dimer test: A type of blood test.
  
  TREATMENT
  
• anticoagulants: Also called blood thinners, the drugs heparin and warfarin prevent new clots from forming in blood. They can save life in an emergency situation.
• clot dissolvers (thrombolytics): These drugs speed up the breakdown of a clot. They’re typically reserved for emergency situations because side effects may include dangerous bleeding problems.

• Surgery may be necessary to remove problematic clots, especially those that restrict blood flow to the lungs or heart. According to the Clinical studies , some surgical procedures doctor may use in the case of a pulmonary embolism include:

• vein filter: Doctor will make a small incision, then use a thin wire to install a small filter in your inferior vena cava. The vena cava is the main vein that leads from your legs to the right side of your heart. The filter prevents blood clots from traveling from your legs to your lungs.
• clot removal: A thin tube called a catheter will suction large clots out of your artery. It isn’t an entirely effective method because of the difficulty involved, so it’s not always a preferred method of treatment.
• open surgery: Doctors use open surgery only in emergency situations when a person is in shock or medications aren’t working to break up the clot.
  PREVENTION
  
• Exercise regularly.
• Drink plenty of fluids, like water and juice, but avoid excess alcohol and caffeine.
• If you need to be stationary for long periods of time, move around for a few minutes each hour: move your feet and legs, bend your knees, and stand on tip-toe.
• Do not smoke.
• Avoid crossing legs.
• Avoid wearing tight-fitting clothing.
• Elevate ones feet for 30 minutes twice a day.
  
  CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE
  
• Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a chronic inflammatory lung disease that causes obstructed airflow from the lungs.
• The most common are emphysema and chronic bronchitis.
  
• Emphysema slowly destroys air sacs in the lungs, which interferes with outward air flow.
• Bronchitis causes inflammation and narrowing of the bronchial tubes, which allows mucus to build up
  
  CAUSES
• The top cause of COPD is tobacco smoking.
• Long-term exposure to chemical irritants can also lead to COPD.
  
  SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS

• COPD makes it harder to breathe.
  

• Symptoms may be mild at first, beginning with intermittent coughing and shortness of breath. As it progresses, symptoms can become more constant to where it can become increasingly difficult to breathe.

• Patient may experience wheezing and tightness in the chest or have excess sputum production. Some people with COPD have acute exacerbations, which are flare-ups of severe symptoms.

  At first, symptoms of COPD can be quite mild. You might mistake them for a cold.

  Early symptoms include:

• occasional shortness of breath, especially after exercise
• mild but recurrent cough
• needing to clear your throat often, especially first thing in the morning

  Symptoms can get progressively worse and harder to ignore. As the lungs become more damaged, patient may experience:

• shortness of breath, after even mild exercise such as walking up a flight of stairs
• wheezing, which is a type of higher pitched noisy breathing, especially during exhalations
• chest tightness
• chronic cough, with or without mucus
• need to clear mucus from your lungs every day
• frequent colds, flu, or other respiratory infections
• lack of energy

  Later stages of COPD, symptoms may also include:

• fatigue
• swelling of the feet, ankles, or legs
• weight loss
  DIAGNOSIS

  There’s no single test for COPD. Diagnosis is based on symptoms, a physical exam, and diagnostic test results.
  

  TREATMENT
  Unfortunately this disease is not curable .Treatment can only ease symptoms
  
  PREVENTION
  Strictly not to smoke
  Avoid living in cities with air pollution